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by Dr Milan Neog

When we discuss about the medieval Bhakti movement, names like Ramananda, Kabir, Guru Nanak, Dadu, Tukaram, Narasimha Mehta etc. often come to mind. In the same breath, we must also remember and honour Srimanta Sankaradeva, an extraordinary figure whose contributions were equally profound. He is considered the greatest talent of all time in Assamese socio-cultural life. Assamese literary tradition began in the 10th century CE with the composition of the Buddhist Charyagita. In the 14th century CE, Madhava Kandali, who was born before Srimanta Sankaradeva, translated the Ramayana into Assamese, making it the first translation of the epic into any modern Indo Aryan languages.

Each of these saints of medieval India was unique, and their talents are beyond comparison. Every person is born under certain circumstances, but each great individual is shaped by the contemporary times, society, and their response to the natural and normal rules of conscience. Since the geopolitics, socioeconomic backgrounds, cultural heritage, and historical situations of each region in medieval India were different, each saint responded to them in their own unique way. As such, they embraced new ideologies and philosophies, working towards the metamorphosis of society.

The vast body of works composed by Srimanta Sankaradeva was not in Sanskrit; it was written in the refined literary form of Assamese, handed down to him through the Charyapada, Hema Saraswati, Rudra Kandali, Harihara Bipra, and Madhava Kandali of the pre-Sankari era. He wrote his plays (Ankiya Naats) and his Borgeets in the Brajawali form of Assamese language – which was understandable in all over the Northern India.

Srimanta Sankaradeva brilliantly captured the pulse of folk life—its rhymes, sounds, rhythms, and expressions. He created literature for common people—the workers, the oppressed, the neglected, and the marginalized. It was the literature for those who had forgotten how to laugh under the unbearable weight of pain and suffering, providing them with the mental nourishment that made their difficult lives more bearable. Through this literature, the illiterate masses could grab the essence of life and realize the beauty and pain of earthly livelihood. That is why his works are not simply sermons or religious tales—they are rich with the pure essence of literature. He saw himself as a poet, as reflected in his own words:

“Bhagavata pada shobi / Rachila Sankara kabi”

(The poet Sankara has composed the Bhagavata verses), or

“Krishnaro Kingkaro Sewi / Rachila Sankara kabi.” (the servant of Krishna, the poet Sankara has composed the verses)

This literature enriched the masses. The workers, who were largely illiterate, experienced and appreciated it. The right to education was not granted to the so-called lower-caste people, and for the masses at that time, education was neither accessible nor deemed necessary. Education was primarily reserved for the royal family, feudal lords, courtiers, officers, and high-caste Brahmins.

The question arises: if there are no readers, what is the point of writing? If we compile all of Srimanta Sankaradeva’s writings, excluding his Sanskrit works, the collection would still amount to more than 1,000 pages in Crown Size format with a 14-point font. This does not include his Sanskrit compositions or the compilation Bhakti Ratnakara.

Scholars, creativity, and social responsibility come together in a remarkable blend of talents in Srimanta Sankaradeva’s works, seeking new avenues—constructing a performing text alongside the literary text. There was also a need to give voice to the voiceless in the creation of both forms. His works gave music to the lips of a weeping crowd, and courage to the hearts of the desperate --through the power of storytelling. The resonance of sound and the rhythm of rhyme in Srimanta Sankaradeva’s tales brought the supernatural world to the masses in a profoundly literary way. The masses understand the celestial world with the help of the earthly experiences. For example, Indra, despite being a deity, behaves like an ordinary man—venting his emotions and becoming intoxicated with pride and anger.

Aji tor koro uli/ Krodhe Indra ehi buli

(becoming very angry Indra says today I will destroy you).

Again, in the ‘Haramohana’ episode of Kirtana, Srimanta Sankaradeva has written,

Krira dekhi Chandra kame bimohito ati

Stambhailanto rotho nupuhai jito rati.

Seeing the erotic behavior of Siva, Chandra (The deity Moon) is stung by the cupid and lingers, the day fails to break! ----In this regard, the poet’s imagination is both primitive and beautiful, much like the imagery found in folktales.

The illiterate masses enjoyed this beautiful literature of Srimanta Sankaradeva. The way to overcome the obstacles, to bringing such pleasant texts to the public was by listening and chanting. In the words of Srimanta Sankaradeva, among the nine forms of devotion, "hearing (shravan) and chanting (kirtan) are the best.” The purpose of this is - if the literate sings/reads (kirtan), the illiterate will hear (shravana). From a religious point of view, hearing and chanting are two expressions of devotion. But socio-culturally it is an innovative way of public education. In the devotional tradition of Assam, devotion to God is personal but a major system of worship - 'Nam Prasang' is always collective. In other words, Kirtan or chanting the name of God is done in ‘Satsang’ (saintly association) or with the gathering of the bhakatas. Its social significance is that if one recites kirtan, the assembled crown will listen. Therefore - Srimanta Sankaradeva paid a lot of attention to the Satsang. He prompted in various ways to take association with the bhakatas. For example,

‘Kato Mahabhagye bhakatoko log pai

Atopore jibaro paramo bhagya nai

(to meet the Bhaktas is a rare luckiness)

Sri Krishna himself said (in Srimanta Sankaradeva’s writing),

‘Bhakato Janese moro hridai’ (Bhakta is my heart)

The dream of transcendental liberation is possible through listening and chanting in the company of devotees. Behind this philosophy, Srimanta Sankaradeva gave the Assamese society a joyful tradition of public education and regular practice of reading and listening. It continues to follow the same ideals today.

 It is noteworthy that, kirtan means singing/chanting, not reading. This means that there is music in the kirtan.  Assamese devotional tradition holy scriptures must be listened to, and if the listening is not enjoyable, it will be boring. Therefore, Srimanta Sankaradeva added a beautiful performance text in each literary text.

The tone and melody are deferent according to the context. For instance, the tune in which the Bhagavata, is recited differs from the recitational tune of the Kirtana Ghosa written by Srimanta Sankaradeva. Similarly, the recitational style of Namghosha, composed by Madhavadeva, follows a different pattern. The same variation applies within a single text as well. For example, the recitation of the Kirtana-ghosa differs depending on whether it is used during Nam prasanga or a regular reading. Likewise, the recitation of Namghosha varies depending on the context—whether it is sung in a khol prasanga, a nam prasanga, or simply recited as a prayer by a householder. The vast, varied, and deeply appealing musical arrangement in literary readings enhanced the emotional expression of Bhagavad-bhakti, making it a powerful and immersive experience.

The compassion in the Bargit 'Pave Pari Hari' is expressed with equal intensity in the Namghosha.  It is remarkable that the Namghosha is a theory-based doctrine and prayer book. It does not have a narrative tale. Ordinary people are lovers of narrative tales. Therefore, all the literature of Srimanta Sankaradeva is basically narrative tales. But there is no narrative in the Namghosa. However, it is very popular in Assam. So, the difficult philosophical tatta are become easy to realise through the repeated chanting with this kind of musical performance.

Nirguna Howai jibo tuwa guno gai.

(the creature becomes attributeless by chanting your name and fame)

Another notable feature of the 'Namghosa' is the rhythm of the odd circle. For example, there is no match between syllables and the unit of musical measure between the following lines

        Karmat biswas jaro hiyato thakonta hari

        Atisai duro hunta taro/ Duroto biduro hunta taro.

The last line is extra according to Assamese prosody, as the first line should have 14 syllables but currently has 16.  There are several inconsistencies in the rhythmic arrangement in the final section of the Namghosha, known as Namchanda. Without proper rhyme, the reading experience is affected. However, the musical performance of the Namghosha remains unaffected by these rhythmic irregularities due to its perfomance text.

Through Srimanta Sankaradeva’s linguistic transformation, medieval Assamese became so enriched that it could convey profound philosophical theories, tragic stories, themes of love and desire, picturisation of the beauty of nature and vivid descriptions of unfamiliar figures such as Surpanakha, Aghasura, Baghasura, and Nrisingha, as well as depictions of fire, war, and physical conditions of characters previously unknown to Assamese audiences.

As Srimanta Sankaradeva preached his new religion to uplift the common people, he used the literature, music, acting, and visual art as tools to convey his message. His language was simple and accessible, even when expressing the profound teachings of the Bhagavata, the Gita, and Vedantic monotheistic philosophy.

Despite its simplicity, his language effectively conveyed complex concepts such as Brahma, Maya, the nature of the world, Ekasarana, Nishkam Bhakti, the classical foundation of castelessness, the futility of Brahminism, and the essential attributes of God—nirguna, nirakar, nirvishesha (formless, without attributes, and beyond specificity). His ability to express these intricate philosophical ideas with clarity and conviction is truly remarkable.

In his writings we find the scholar philosopher Srimanta Sankaradeva. Yet he is sensitive towards the happiness and sorrow of the people, their poverty and therefore is not into showing off his scholarship. The intellectualism of the historical great man is evident in his Sanskrit work called Bhakti-Ratnakara, a scholarly work with commentaries and annotations. This was meant for scholars to read and not for ordinary people.

Srimanta Sankaradeva’s Gajendra Upakhyan, Shyamantak Haran, and Balichalan are pure tales of enjoyment, appealing to both young and old alike. As a narrator, Srimanta Sankaradeva is remarkably creative. The narratives he reconstructed from Sanskrit contain all the fundamental elements of a wholesome social life rooted in moral values. Undoubtedly, these stories have played a significant role in shaping the moral and social fabric of Assamese society.  Prahlad, though persecuted, remained steadfast in his faith, trust, and idealism as a devoted follower—yet he remained calm, humble, and patient. Bipra Damodar, despite his poverty, upheld his self-respect. His friendship with Sri Krishna of Dwaraka was never diminished by financial inequality. Throughout these narratives, there is a continuous flow of devotional ideals and philosophical insights, much like how proverbs are woven into the folktales of everyday life.

Nature is physically and humanly integrated into the ranks. There is an elegant expression of physical pleasure in the description. Translating such verses into English is very difficult due to their cultural context and linguistic construction. But it is possible to translate it meaningfully into any regional Indian language.

It is very interesting to observe about the musical awareness in Srimanta Sankaradeva's literature. This musicality of his texts is associated with the association of sound with the sense –the pleasure of listening to best words in best order. The rhythm of a Borgeet, the repetition of a syllable and the pace/tempo of a song has direct link with the content. After hearing a song anyone can understand the content. The sound pattern and musical structure of Srimanta Sankaradeva’s compositions themselves help convey their meaning and context. Similarly, he demonstrates remarkable skill in crafting non-musical literary texts.

In his songs, the words and their musical arrangement form an integral part of the context. Likewise, his non-musical literary works incorporate vivid sound and pictorial descriptions that enhance their depth and expression. Srimanta Sankaradeva built the foundation of his philosophy through rigorous study, and the precision with which he references authoritative texts to support each of his views is unparalleled among his contemporaries. He says,

Amar bole jittaneda thari.

Ekadash kondhe chowa bisari.

Padma puranato namato ashe

Napaile akhyak nindiba pashe.

(You can vilify me if you could not find it in Padma purana)

He criticized the pan Indian casteism by referring to the scriptures:

            Antajayu jiba kori ase geeta

Taka ninda kore jitu kumar.

Punyako lagi jai adhogati.

Amaro bole patiyano nai.

Dekhiyo suto samhitaka chai.

It means, who censure the low caste people for their chanting of Hari-naam, they are go to the hell. If you do not believe me, please see the Suta samhita.

Yet, these narratives are not merely read but also sung. Through songs, these otherwise unlyrical narratives reach common people, making them more accessible—a truly noble venture. Close readers of Srimanta Sankaradeva might be observing his genuine fascination and curiosity about the world, as well as his deep interest for the mystery of human beings. Of course, we must view this within the medieval context. In Bhakti literature, characters attain Baikuntha (heaven) through the power of their devotion to God. Here, Baikuntha represents the ultimate bliss.

But what did happiness mean to people at that time? It could be as simple as having rice when hungry, a remedy for the sick, or a cure for mental distress. Could the contemporary kings, priests, or Tantrics offer solutions to such problems beyond what Srimanta Sankaradeva provided? The same question applies to saints like Guru Nanak and Kabir as well. Srimanta Sankaradeva may not have been able to feed the poor with rice, but he could inspire them to detach from material gains and pleasures. He advocated for a simple life, an ideal of equality, humanistic inclusiveness, and lessons of tolerance—values that transcended the elaborate and costly rituals of the Brahminical tradition.

Through literature and music, he enriched the everyday lives of common people by adding an artistic dimension. It is this cultural and spiritual treasure bestowed by Srimanta Sankaradeva that continues to keep Assamese society rich to this day. For this reason, he is revered as our ‘ultimate Guru’ and is celebrated as the greatest figure Assam has ever produced. He was instrumental in introducing India to the Assamese people. By composing Raga music with uniqueness, he held a significant place in the world of Indian music.

[Lecture delivered in Srimanta Sankaradeva chair at Panjab University, Chandigarh]

by Dr Ananya Barua

Śrimanta Śankaradeva and Hazrat Ājān Pir Fakir breathed new life into the vulnerable religion frontline emulating from the mutual milieu of the chronicled past. Streamlining the practiced observations, added with the inclusion of the local dialect to paraphrase the revered texts, paved the way for bringing in the much-celebrated Bhakti movement in Assam, India. Both these religious reformers constructed new kinds of meaning as the horizon of the text or the tradition, which they sought to creatively re-interpret, creating new literary canons and poetics to legitimize the emergence of new literary genres.

It is significant that the Bhagavata, the main source of inspiration for the medieval Bhakti Saints, could open new possibilities for creative interpretation. Both these diverse religious traditions gave special emphasis on bringing the lower strata, the Sudra (the most innumerable component of India) and stree (women), into the forefront of religio-cultural practice through mass community participation.

Till the British brought in the communal factor in its colonial administrative ethos, Bhakti, and Sufism flourished with benign influence on each other in pre- colonial religious but secular Bharatavarsha.

Mahapurusha Śrimanta Śankaradeva and Bhakti Renaissance in Medieval Assam:

In this conflict-torn historical situation, religion appears to act as a strong ally to the forces of divisiveness and violence rather than a force for unity and peace. In pre-colonial Medieval India, spiritual and cultural renaissance ushered in by the Bhakti movement paved the way for meaningful influence of the Vaishnavism of Śrimanta Śankaradeva on the vernacularised Islam influenced by one of the most revered Islamic preachers in Assam, Ājān Pir. Both Śrimanta Śankaradeva and Ājān Pir sought to restore the human face of religion, drawing inspiration from the historically affected consciousnesses.

Inter-Religious influence in Medieval Assam, India

The relation one has with the text is essential to provide meaning and colors to our understanding. It invites us to come together as people, not as belief systems. If in the medieval ages, we see more religious tolerance than in the colonial and post-colonial society. This is because the distinctive horizons of the political man differ from the wider horizon of a man of faith who is a bhakta at heart, one who knows the secret of true love that alone can transform the impersonal ‘it’ to a passionate ‘Thou’. To do this, the Vaishnavite saint Śrimanta Śankaradeva and a Sufi Saint Ajan Fakir (or Ajan Pir) opted for the Bhaktic interpretation of the text. The spiritual-cultural renaissance ushered in by the Bhakti movement in Medieval India acted as a cementing force that could spiritually bind Assam and its neighboring states to that cultural land of the Bharata. Thus, one can say it is the politicization of religion, which is the real problem rather than religion per se.  

Socio-cultural and Linguistic Implications of the Bhakti Movement:

In the Medieval India the mediators sought to re-interpret the authoritative texts, unveiling the infinite potentiality of the textual content in terms of the historical and cultural horizons. In its effort to safeguard the voices, the Bhakti Movement made a special effort to identify the following:

(a) The right type of text: There was a relationship between authoritative texts like the Gita and the Bhagavata, as these texts could open up new possibilities and could become the source of several religious movements, each different from the other. There are numerous commentaries of these texts and Śrimanta Śankaradeva himself used the commentary Bhagavata Bhabartha Dipika. In this manner, this bhakti-centric concrete dimension of meaning has added a distinct flavor to the notion of textual authority.

The Gurus or the interpreters of the texts were sensitive to the types of devotees for whose sake the text needs specific re-interpretation time and again, taking into account their role in this whole meaning-discovering process. It is equally significant that Nanak, Tukaram, Namdev, and Śrimanta Śankaradeva were all non-Brahmin by birth, which could give new impetus to Bhasa.

Noted historian, H. K. Barpujari points out that “the neo-Vaishnavite movement in Assam was backed by a strong literary upsurge which found expression in the translation of the epics and the Puranas, the adaptation of the Puranic episodes in the form of independent Kavyas, devotional works explaining the types and modes of devotion, lyrics (barges), dramas and biographies of Vaishnava saints”. In its practical sense, the text could now open up to a community of readers with sole emphasis on Sravana and Kirana. The holy books in Sanskrit could now be easily accessible to the Sudras and women in their vernacular language.

(b) The right medium: The story of Śrimanta Śankaradeva or Ajan Pir is also “a story of the development of languages, giving centrality to the language of the people to that of the power elite”. (Murdoch, 1987) Śrimanta Śankaradeva used Brajawali, the colloquial form of the prevailing literary language of Assam, which was similar to North-Indian vernaculars, for his dramas and his Borgeet (devotional songs) to benefit the greater masses.

Brajawali was never an elitist language. It was people’s language. The Assamese language has turned out to be a perfect medium for conveying this catholic spirit of bhakti that could provide a platform for the fusion of horizons. The various tribal dialects and languages of the state, such as Bodo, Karbi, Dimasa, Mishing, Rabha, etc have enriched this language. Arabic and Persian words are another noteworthy addition to the Assamese language. Both Śrimanta Śankaradeva and Ajan Fakir were particularly sensitive to spreading the message of bhakti through the medium of art, language, dance, drama, and music.

Unlike in some other places, pre-colonial Assam has witnessed the peaceful co-existence of different religions, and religious fanaticism was unheard of. The categories ‘Hindu’ and ‘Muslim’ emerged in the context of Medieval India simply because identities were predominantly related to caste (jati), sect (panth), and regional traditions, but these were never identified as separate categories. There was the possibility of caste mobility or panth mobility even within this hierarchy. Ajan Fakir’s is a radial deviation from the model that has dominated the understanding of orthodox Islam, which destroys the image of people as passive beneficiaries of an elite religious order. He became the voice of a dissident sub-alternity committed to telling a ‘different’ story. Muslims have a history of more than seven centuries in Assam as early as 1203 CE. Islam in Assam is open, accommodative, inclusive, and adaptive in its local specificity. It is different from that in North and Western India. The core area of Islamic civilization in India and the social practices of the ‘Asamiya Muslims’ may be inconsistent with the laws of any Islamic schools.

The systematic propagation of Islam as an organized religion started only in the early part of the 17th century by a wandering Muslim mystic Shah Milan (1630 CE). Shah Milan and his brother Shah Nabi found that the Muslims of Assam did not follow any aspect of traditional Islam. They had assimilated into the medieval Assamese society and gained acceptance as one of its inseparable components. Shah Milan received the name “Ajan Fakir” or Ajan Pir (Saint) because he was the one who taught the Assamese Muslims to recite “Azan” as a part of the Muslim ritual. He introduced the Muslims of Assam to the Namaz, the contents of the Quran, the Hadiths, and other Islamic literature with which they were barely acquainted, through a regime of folk songs, instrumental music, and dances.

Śrimanta Śankaradeva was the pioneer in this regard taking courageous steps like opening doors of bhakti to one and all, including the Muslim devotees like Chand Sai. The local Muslims used to take part in the community singing of Kirtana songs for community prayer composed by Śrimanta Śankaradeva to propagate Vaishnavism. The Muslims also took mah-prasad (uncooked eatables generally consisting of gram, sugarcane, coconut, ginger, and fruits) distributed at the end of the Kirtana. These background beliefs formed the common horizon of meaning for both these distinct religious communities. Later, Ajan Pir introduced the custom of distributing sinni (considered food prepared out of rice) at the end of the Kirtana. Ajan Fakir composed one hundred and sixty Zikirs in Assamese.  Zikirs are devotional songs. Ajan Pir and his disciples contributed significantly to educating the majority of local Muslims through unorthodox methods, including ‘un-Islamic’ scriptural standards. Ajan Fakir and his disciples, popularly known as “Bhakat” in Assamese, performed Zikir, dancing and singing with hand clapping, folk performances such as Diha Nam, Husori, etc.

While spreading the religious principles of Islam, Ajan Pir had always been sensitive to the sentiments of Assamese society. Chief objective of him appears to have been the reorganization of Muslim society in Assam by regenerating Islam in such a way that there was no discord in the age-old harmonious relations with their Hindu and other non-Hindu neighbors. A sense of respect for all other castes, creeds, and religions is present in Zikir and Zari songs.

Conclusion

The meaning of the text is obtained through the interaction of the reader and the text itself.  Interestingly, people from two different communities could overcome man-made artificial barriers under the spiritual leadership of Śrimanta Śankaradeva and Ajan Pir at a time when there was space for intimate and interpersonal dialogue across boundaries. Assamese culture and literature witnessed a revolutionary change with the advent of these two great saints – Śrimanta Śankaradeva and Ajan Pir. They both influenced Assamese culture, and society and changed the narrow-minded attitude of the people.  Today, under a changed perspective, when the political man is valued only as a number in the political vote banks, people look for contracts and political accords that, they feel, should address the fears and apprehensions of minorities or majorities.  Thus, the Assamese people find themselves in a political situation in which they are required to propose a definition to mark their identity. The political man and his tug of war between Indian nationalism and Assamese nationalism is a modern manifestation, it usually reflects the agony of a historically effected consciousness that looks for some socio-political solutions to some of his existential problems. Ajan Pir was a symbol of unity, social harmony, and non-violence like Śrimanta Śankaradeva. Empathy, patience, and the greatness of human society were reflected in his writings: “In my mind, Oh Allah! I have no different thoughts. Hindus and Muslims are bound by the same act of divine rules of Allah.” The truth is simple and bold: ‘Hinduk puribo Mominak garibo.’ The act of cremating a Hindu and the entombing of a Muslim only signifies one end - death for all.