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by Rupam Kumar Boro

Srimanta Sankaradeva being a pivotal figure is actually divided into the polarity of intellectual and common people. The intellectual is immersed in bringing out a new paradigm of his works, and the common people are subjected to the influence of ‘Kirttan Ghoxa’.

We are bound to cite such remarks after going through the crucial book Sankaradeva Adhyayanat Bixangati by Dr Sanjib Kr. Borkakoti (Pragya Mediahype, 2024). The first publication dates back to the year 2005. After a gap of about two decades, its second publication came out in 2024. Surprisingly, the article cherishes its dignity not only from the perspective of time period and relevance but also the challenges it throws upon the readers. The book exposes the falsification and various baffling statements associated with the life and philosophy of Gurujana.

In the very first article titled ‘Mahapurux Srimanta Sankaradevar Bixoye Chaitanya Panthir Apaprasar’, Dr Borkakoti presents to us the views and statements of a critic who asserts that Sankaradeva received theological knowledge from Chaitanyadev and also about the alleged influence in His work of arts, typically from Bengal. There is an absence of tagging the word ‘originality’ to Gurujana’s works by this critic, and the cobweb of ‘influence’ appears to be the keyword, at least, after reading this article.

For instance, according to the above-mentioned critic, our ‘Sattriya’ dance form is still in its budding state, and it is mostly influenced by the sect of Chaitanyadev. Secondly, Sankaradeva pondered about religion and culture much later than Chaitanyadev. Thirdly, besides Sankaradeva, Madhavdeva and Damodardeva, too, got the insight of religion from Chaitanyadev. Fourthly, Sankaradeva received the knowledge of ‘Ek Sharan’ from Chaitanyadev. Fifthly, the songs composed by Sankaradeva had their influence from Chaitanyadev. Dr Borkakoti shows how far these statements are from truth.

‘We come across a sentence where our author cites an example of an essay’, the writer who complains of Sankaradeva to plagiarise a ‘shloka’ from Chaitanyadev (page 28). Our author refutes it by stating that there is no such evidence of that ‘shloka’ to be composed by the saint of Bengal.

The next consecutive four articles are titled ‘Srimanta Sankaradevar Bixoye Baampanthir, Apaprasar’. ‘Srimanta Sankaradeva Adhyayanat Bibhranti’, ‘Sankari Dharma aru Xamantajugiya Arthaniti’ and ‘Srimanta Sankaradeva aru Marx’. Two prominent books termed to be ‘classics’ are chosen for discussion by our author. Praxanga Sankaradeva (edited by Dr Sivanath Barman) and Srimanta Sankaradeva: Kriti aru Krititva (by the same author) face a massive challenge as the opinions reflected in the mentioned books are questioned and critically analysed with a note of corrections. It is interesting to note that on careful reading of the essays, readers will observe how Dr Borkakoti has delved into the foundation of Marxism to watch how Sankaradeva has been studied.

For the book Praxanga Sankaradeva, the leading critics who have contributed their writings are Dr Hiren Gohain, Dr Amalendu Guha, Bhabananda Dutta, Anil Roychowdhury, Dr Dhrubajyoti Bora and others. Unhesitatingly we can say that rarely we see any scholars, critics and readers raising objections against these scores of eminent writers. At least from a literary point of view, we trust in their writings. Even to understand Sankaradeva, the admirers come with a preconceived notion that something innovative or close to “eternal truth” will be revealed. To doubt their observations and to speak against their ideas based on our judgement is to invite bitter criticism from all counters. This is how the chain of thought patterns is sustained among us.

Readers who are quite familiar with Dr Borkakoti’s magnum opus, Purnanga Katha Gurucharit (3rd edition, Aank Bak, 2024), can feel the painstaking effort and an admirable range of exhaustive studies that he has done to meaningfully accomplish the task for our community. Unfortunately, very few include his name and credit his task but are smart enough in plagiarising his works.

The above-mentioned four essays were written in the nineties, but how these books and the viewpoint of our author will stand in coming times is the question of the hour. For the author of Kriti aru Krititva, no trace of any alteration of his opinions is noticed. Under such situations it becomes our prime responsibility to read with an impartial view and come to a definite conclusion which is satisfying and also well-accepted by academicians.

Every ideology has definite loopholes which cannot be overlooked. One needs to understand its scope of implementations. With the brutal change in time, ideology may become unfit depending on situations. To assert Marxism/communism to be the only reliable microscopic yardstick in interpreting every minute account can topple us from forming a balanced picture. The results can be fatal if views outside the Marxist periphery are not at all welcomed and the subject is overthrown. There is no such formula that a particular theory or ideology can be an effective/accurate tool to judge people and events in every circumstance.

Dr Borkakoti has extracted sentences from the book Praxanga Sankaradeva which he objects to and instead gives his opinions. For the convenience of our readers, we would mention a few of them, such as the ‘bhakti’ movement propagated by Sankaradeva being a hindrance in achieving socialism, the Mahapuruxia culture having its resemblance with the Manipuri and the ‘Baul’ culture of Bengal, the possession of materialistic pursuits being considered a sin, feudalism being embedded in the ‘bhakti’ movement of Sankaradeva, and so on. Our author rectifies these statements successfully.

An aura of counterattack is visible from our author when he meets criticism regarding his opinions for the book ‘Kriti aru Krititva’. This very book is considered even today as an inseparable one for Sankaradeva studies. However, after going through our author’s pinpoint and rectifications, the explanations of the book dangle before us. Even in the latest publication of ‘Kritti aru Krititva’ (Assam Publishing Company, 2023), we notice the opinions are retained on the subjects that were under greater scrutiny. As a result, we believe two categories of reading communities will emerge. One, a rigid follower of Marx, reluctant to visualise any form of doubt for ‘Kritti aru Krititva’. The second one, who will be open to the views of the present book Sankaradeva Adhyayanat Bixangati, does a comparative study for that purpose. We need readers of this latter category.

In the next two articles, the focus is upon the works of the esteemed scholar Dr Maheswar Neog. For any reader well-versed in Assamese literature, Dr Maheswar Neog is a name synonymous with Sankaradeva studies. Even today for any of our questions and philosophy related to Sankaradeva, we take refuge in Dr Maheswar Neog’s works, especially his magnum opus, Sankardeva and His Times. It would not be an exaggeration to say that we blindly believe in each and every word of the book. Honestly, we even fear/hesitate to raise a question about this book. One of the probable reasons is fear from our community, which may get provoked, or from the staunch believers and academicians whose fury and verbal abuse are enough to curtail our work.

From the perspective of being a common reader, we are now driven to reread this classic book, Sankardeva and His Times, on an exhaustive note. For the convenience of our readers, we will cite only a few instances from the works of Dr Neog where Dr Borkakoti points out and rectifies the errors.

According to Dr Neog, Sankaradeva organised the ‘Doulutsav’ in a Kirttanghar during the time of ‘Cihnayaatra’. Secondly, Gurujana’s play ‘Patnipraxad’ was written in Dhuwahata (guesswork). Thirdly, the ‘paguri’ (‘turban’) and the attire put on by a ‘Sutradhar’ actually come from the Hindustani culture. Thirdly, the style adopted in Chitra Bhagavata closely resembles the Mughal style, and it cannot belong to the sixth century. Fourthly, the mention of Kirttanghar as ‘temple’ in his magnum opus.

In this way we have found that there are multiple instances where statements held to be ‘authentic’ are questioned. For us, we need to dive in to arrive at a perfect conclusion satisfying our hearts. But for research scholars, it is challenging and requires a bit of a Herculean task to revise their preconceived notions. It demands an enormous range of studies on our part to convincingly know Gurujana rather than seeking and nurturing ideas or the old-aged “truths”.

Moving towards the next article is ‘Srimanta Sankaradevar Darxan Xamparke Alochanat Bixangati’. Here we come across various statements from research scholars that are questioned and rectified by our author. These statements are extracted from the English magazine name Prachyapragya (3rd volume, 2000) published by Sankardev Institute of Culture International. In brief, the subjects that are centred under discussion are ‘rasa’ that Sankaradeva gave prominence to, the year of Sankaradeva’s demise, the supreme deity whom He worshipped, to whom Sankaradeva considered as His Guru, whether He considered ‘Maya’ to have a beginning or not, the philosophy behind the religion Gurujana propagated and others.

Looking at this debilitating condition of the journal, we arrive at a conclusion that the study on Sankaradeva is not profound. Keeping aside a few of the topics which the author admires, the rest of the errors being pointed out utterly surprise us. If academicians make such fallacies/blunders, then what sort of message can be received by us as common readers? If such flaws happen to exist in a research-orientated journal, it is a threat towards the intellectual development of a community. We are pleased that at least our author of this book is vigilant enough in detecting the misplacement of thoughts and terminologies.

The concluding article for our discussion in the book is ‘Rajmohan Nathar Sankaradeva Adhyayanat Bixangati’. Belonging to Assam, Rajmohan Nath writes an article about the life and contributions of Sankaradeva. It was included in the fourth volume of the Cultural Heritage of India published by Ramkrishna Mission. The objections raised against his writings centre around topics such as writing the name of Sankaradeva as ‘Sankar’ and ‘Deva’ separately, the birth of Sankaradeva being in the year 1486, the shedding of the ‘Shakti’ cult with the arrival of Jagadish Mishra, the time period of starting the translation of Bhagavata and its completion, Sankaradeva not giving ‘Xaran’ (‘initiation’) to women, the presence of a ‘purohit’ (‘priest’) in Naamdharma and others.

Sankaradeva Adhyayanat Bixangati needs an appreciation today from readers of all communities. We cannot deny that right from Bezbaruah and Maheswar Neog to the leading Marxist authors – all these stalwarts played a key role in pioneering our minds towards Sankaradeva studies. In its midst, the air of appreciation for them sowed seeds of emotion and arrogance into our hearts. This psyche made us overlook the rectifications.

Srimanta Sankardeva should not be an object of dichotomy among the academicians. For we, as laymen, rely upon their works. If newer discoveries are made or truths are found out, why do we hesitate to accept it? For the researcher has his pure intention to place the icon on that pedestal where both inside and outside of our region he receives the due recognition. After going through this book, one will obviously find the causes for it.

Dr Borkakoti, with his unfailing conviction, wipes out the doubts, and his vividness manifests the ‘man’ Sankaradeva before our eyes. Upcoming generations ought to read this book, as the concreteness of the author’s thought and plain way of writing are capable of drawing the attention of the young minds.

[Published in The Sentinel, 20 April, 2025]

https://www.sentinelassam.com/more-news/life/sankaradeva-adhyayanat-bixangati-a-viewpoint-from-a-common-reader

By Dr Dayananda Pathak

Srimanta Sankaradeva, the poet-playwright and social engineer of legendary height, from 15-16 century Assam, overstepped the regional and national frontiers for his human concerns and the glorification of an individual`s latent creativities. Although he is associated with Vaishnavism, he was essentially above all these religious identities in terms of strait-jacket exclusivities. Vaishnavism as a religious principle and practice started long before Srimanta Sankaradeva was born. Every principle has to be readjusted and rejuvenated to suit to local situations. For that we need not add a separate appellation for old ideas and their practical applications. A saint cannot be a local or national identity. He is born for the greatness and glorification of human beings erasing the entire national and sub-national frontiers. It is not the physical man, but the ideas that matter most in human civilization. The idea has to be humanity-centric for the acceleration of civilization. For that we need great thinkers, great ideologues and saintly messengers for peace and creativity, latent within every individual.

            Srimanta Sankaradeva`s idea of life was multi-dimensional. His place cannot be confined only within the narrow geographical periphery of what we call religiosity. Our ideas of religion, largely across the world, are insularity-prone. For example, Islam is for the Muslims only. Christianity, with all the diversities, is for the Christians only. Similarly, Vaishnavism with all its time-tested and history-based credentials is also for a specified community of believers.

            Religion implies the character of a particular object, live or non-live. For example, the religion of fire is to burn, to give light and warmth. The religion of water is to quench the thirst of all living animals, to fertilize the earth, and to regulate the weather and many more traits. Where there is no water there is no life, there is no civilization. Every object of nature has a religion, and that trait keeps mankind and human civilization vibrant.

            A man cannot live by the narrower religious identities. For life, one has to work hard. He also has to keep his sociality alive. For this, we will have to look at the life and teachings of Lord Krishna, as explicated to Arjuna, as narrated in the Bhagawat-Gita. There it is said, the prime duty of a man is to do work, and to spend time on what is desirable and indispensable, as decided by time and situation. Srimanta Sankaradeva abided by this concept in all his works.

            All the literary works of Srimanta Sankaradeva carry a message for the humankind at large. His works stood for the total man and for the totality of human potentials. Religion, as we understand in insular perspective, was only a part of that totality. If that stage could be reached, the world of human beings will be a world of peace and real prosperity. Lest, it will remain as it was thousand years back, full of turmoil and internecine warfare at the cost of peace and cohesiveness.

            The religious protagonists of the religious ideologies have not gone for literary expression and flowering of latent creativities in men. Srimanta Sankaradeva was quite an exception. He wanted to scale the height of what is being described by Longinus as Sublime.

            Do we have any world community or a social leader in this enlightened context and world view? Every writer speaks and writes in his or her own language, or in a language one feels comfortable. William Shakespeare, George Bernard Shaw, and T.S. Eliot wrote in English. Their intent and content covered the man in his struggle for existence. Their writings are adumbrated by their wide world views. Leo Tolstoy may have written in Russian, but he is for the world community across all the man–made barriers. Same is the case with Rousseau who wrote for humanity, dispelling all man-made barriers. Cannot we state the same thing for Plato and Aristotle?

            Srimanta Sankaradeva, like Plato and Aristotle, never spoke for any specific community. He had spoken for every morally alienated person who, he says, has chosen to pick up the glass in preference to diamond. In most of his verses the point of glass and diamond is seen to beat our heart and ethos with great profundity. In every literary expression Srimanta Sankaradeva is seen to excel with a spectrum of global dimension.

            Srimanta Sankaradeva`s literary domain was large and all-inclusive. His literary works include his poetic compositions, popularly described as Kavyas. They are as follows:

1.Harichandra Upakhyana

2.Rukmini Haran Kavya

3.Azamil Upakhyana

4..Balichalana

5.Kurukhetra

6.Amrit Manthan

7.Kirtana-Ghosha

He was a great dramatist, being the first dramatist in medieval India. In this connection we need not mention the name of the great dramatists of ancient India. We can succinctly refer to the dramatist like Kalidas, who wrote in Sanskrit and for the select few who had the knowledge of Sanskrit language. But Srimanta Sankaradeva wrote for the common people in a popular language to access the heart of the common people –Brajabuli- the language of the common people covering the entire northern, eastern and north-eastern parts of India. His plays which are now available are as follows:

1. Patni Prasad

2. Kaliya Daman

3. Keli Gopal

4. Parijat Haran

5. Rukmini Haran

6. Ram Vijay

He also authored a number of books containing his own doctrinal ideas of Vaishnavite philosophy. These are –

1. Bhakti Pradip

2. Anadi Patan

3. Nimi Navasiddha Samvad

4. Bhakti Ratnakar (in Sanskrit)

5. Gunamala (Shortened form of theBhagawatapurana).

Srimanta Sankaradeva wanted to bring the spirit and content of the Bhagavatapurana and the same of the epic Ramayana within the knowledgeable periphery of the common people with the intention of acquainting them with the spiritual resources of Indian philosophy. He made an Assamese rendering of the two great works and thereby made them accessible by the common people of his time. These renderings cannot be called replica of the Bhagavatapurana as composed by Vyasa and the epic Ramayana as composed by Rishi Valmiki. Srimanta Sankaradeva had his own ways of looking at things without being limited by the original portrayals by the great sages in Sanskrit. He rendered only the 7th kanda of the Ramayana, popularly called the Uttara Kanda. He also advised his disciple Madhabadeva to make the similar kind of Assamese rendering of the Adikanda of the Ramayana. The reason was stated to be clear. In the 14th century, Madhaba Kandali made an Assamese rendering of the Valmiki Ramayana. Srimanta Sankaradeva found only five Kandas of the Kandali Ramayana. He, therefore, wanted to fill in the two lost or missing Kandas of the Ramayana. His portrayal of Sita, exiled by her husband Lord Rama, was quite a protesting voice. Sita in Srimanta Sankaradeva’s version did not look at her husband and preferred to get lost in the boson of mother earth. Valmiki`s Sita was quite submissive and docile, but Srimanta Sankaradeva’s Sita was for woman`s due honor and dignity.

            Srimanta Sankaradeva was a singer and a composer of lyrics called Bargeets. He composed as many as 240 devotional lyrics, but we have only 34 of them left, that too saved from the memory of his devotees. One Kamala Bayon, one of his devotees, took the 240 lyrics from his Master for perusal at home, but unfortunately got the lyrics burnt to ashes in a devastating fire that consumed his house as well.

            Srimanta Sankaradeva also composed some panegyric verses called the Bhatimas. They are classed as Deva Bhatima (addressed to Lord Krsna), Nat Bhatima (as presented in his plays) and Raj Bhatimas (as addressed to his patron king.)

            Painting was also one of the passions of Srimanta Sankaradeva. For that we must refer to his wonderful work Chinhayatra, wherein he painted seven layers of heavenly presence. Some of the scholars hold a different opinion. For them Chinhayatra was a dance-centric dramatic presentation accompanied by painting and dance. The word ‘Yatra’ also means dramatic presentation. Srimanta Sankaradeva himself presented a role in that yatra.

            Weaving was yet another passion for Srimanta Sankaradeva. At the request of King Naranarayana, he had woven a wonderful garment wherein he had woven the lilas of Lord Krsna from his birth and childhood days on to his adulthood days. At his command the great weavers of the place assembled and helped their Master to complete the work of weaving named as Vrindavani Bastra, now preserved in a Paris Museum.

            Srimanta Sankaradeva’s passion for nritya (dance) was yet another chapter of his cultural ethos. For him the body language –the hastas– convey meaningful significance. The body language is no lesser than the verbal language. Now his dance form is christened as sattriya nritya by the people at large – also being accepted as one of the classical dance forms, say like Kathak, Bharatnrityam, Kathakali, Odissi and others.

[Lecture delivered in Srimanta Sankaradeva Chair at Panjab University, Chandigarh on 15th October, 2024]

by Dr Milan Neog

When we discuss about the medieval Bhakti movement, names like Ramananda, Kabir, Guru Nanak, Dadu, Tukaram, Narasimha Mehta etc. often come to mind. In the same breath, we must also remember and honour Srimanta Sankaradeva, an extraordinary figure whose contributions were equally profound. He is considered the greatest talent of all time in Assamese socio-cultural life. Assamese literary tradition began in the 10th century CE with the composition of the Buddhist Charyagita. In the 14th century CE, Madhava Kandali, who was born before Srimanta Sankaradeva, translated the Ramayana into Assamese, making it the first translation of the epic into any modern Indo Aryan languages.

Each of these saints of medieval India was unique, and their talents are beyond comparison. Every person is born under certain circumstances, but each great individual is shaped by the contemporary times, society, and their response to the natural and normal rules of conscience. Since the geopolitics, socioeconomic backgrounds, cultural heritage, and historical situations of each region in medieval India were different, each saint responded to them in their own unique way. As such, they embraced new ideologies and philosophies, working towards the metamorphosis of society.

The vast body of works composed by Srimanta Sankaradeva was not in Sanskrit; it was written in the refined literary form of Assamese, handed down to him through the Charyapada, Hema Saraswati, Rudra Kandali, Harihara Bipra, and Madhava Kandali of the pre-Sankari era. He wrote his plays (Ankiya Naats) and his Borgeets in the Brajawali form of Assamese language – which was understandable in all over the Northern India.

Srimanta Sankaradeva brilliantly captured the pulse of folk life—its rhymes, sounds, rhythms, and expressions. He created literature for common people—the workers, the oppressed, the neglected, and the marginalized. It was the literature for those who had forgotten how to laugh under the unbearable weight of pain and suffering, providing them with the mental nourishment that made their difficult lives more bearable. Through this literature, the illiterate masses could grab the essence of life and realize the beauty and pain of earthly livelihood. That is why his works are not simply sermons or religious tales—they are rich with the pure essence of literature. He saw himself as a poet, as reflected in his own words:

“Bhagavata pada shobi / Rachila Sankara kabi”

(The poet Sankara has composed the Bhagavata verses), or

“Krishnaro Kingkaro Sewi / Rachila Sankara kabi.” (the servant of Krishna, the poet Sankara has composed the verses)

This literature enriched the masses. The workers, who were largely illiterate, experienced and appreciated it. The right to education was not granted to the so-called lower-caste people, and for the masses at that time, education was neither accessible nor deemed necessary. Education was primarily reserved for the royal family, feudal lords, courtiers, officers, and high-caste Brahmins.

The question arises: if there are no readers, what is the point of writing? If we compile all of Srimanta Sankaradeva’s writings, excluding his Sanskrit works, the collection would still amount to more than 1,000 pages in Crown Size format with a 14-point font. This does not include his Sanskrit compositions or the compilation Bhakti Ratnakara.

Scholars, creativity, and social responsibility come together in a remarkable blend of talents in Srimanta Sankaradeva’s works, seeking new avenues—constructing a performing text alongside the literary text. There was also a need to give voice to the voiceless in the creation of both forms. His works gave music to the lips of a weeping crowd, and courage to the hearts of the desperate --through the power of storytelling. The resonance of sound and the rhythm of rhyme in Srimanta Sankaradeva’s tales brought the supernatural world to the masses in a profoundly literary way. The masses understand the celestial world with the help of the earthly experiences. For example, Indra, despite being a deity, behaves like an ordinary man—venting his emotions and becoming intoxicated with pride and anger.

Aji tor koro uli/ Krodhe Indra ehi buli

(becoming very angry Indra says today I will destroy you).

Again, in the ‘Haramohana’ episode of Kirtana, Srimanta Sankaradeva has written,

Krira dekhi Chandra kame bimohito ati

Stambhailanto rotho nupuhai jito rati.

Seeing the erotic behavior of Siva, Chandra (The deity Moon) is stung by the cupid and lingers, the day fails to break! ----In this regard, the poet’s imagination is both primitive and beautiful, much like the imagery found in folktales.

The illiterate masses enjoyed this beautiful literature of Srimanta Sankaradeva. The way to overcome the obstacles, to bringing such pleasant texts to the public was by listening and chanting. In the words of Srimanta Sankaradeva, among the nine forms of devotion, "hearing (shravan) and chanting (kirtan) are the best.” The purpose of this is - if the literate sings/reads (kirtan), the illiterate will hear (shravana). From a religious point of view, hearing and chanting are two expressions of devotion. But socio-culturally it is an innovative way of public education. In the devotional tradition of Assam, devotion to God is personal but a major system of worship - 'Nam Prasang' is always collective. In other words, Kirtan or chanting the name of God is done in ‘Satsang’ (saintly association) or with the gathering of the bhakatas. Its social significance is that if one recites kirtan, the assembled crown will listen. Therefore - Srimanta Sankaradeva paid a lot of attention to the Satsang. He prompted in various ways to take association with the bhakatas. For example,

‘Kato Mahabhagye bhakatoko log pai

Atopore jibaro paramo bhagya nai

(to meet the Bhaktas is a rare luckiness)

Sri Krishna himself said (in Srimanta Sankaradeva’s writing),

‘Bhakato Janese moro hridai’ (Bhakta is my heart)

The dream of transcendental liberation is possible through listening and chanting in the company of devotees. Behind this philosophy, Srimanta Sankaradeva gave the Assamese society a joyful tradition of public education and regular practice of reading and listening. It continues to follow the same ideals today.

 It is noteworthy that, kirtan means singing/chanting, not reading. This means that there is music in the kirtan.  Assamese devotional tradition holy scriptures must be listened to, and if the listening is not enjoyable, it will be boring. Therefore, Srimanta Sankaradeva added a beautiful performance text in each literary text.

The tone and melody are deferent according to the context. For instance, the tune in which the Bhagavata, is recited differs from the recitational tune of the Kirtana Ghosa written by Srimanta Sankaradeva. Similarly, the recitational style of Namghosha, composed by Madhavadeva, follows a different pattern. The same variation applies within a single text as well. For example, the recitation of the Kirtana-ghosa differs depending on whether it is used during Nam prasanga or a regular reading. Likewise, the recitation of Namghosha varies depending on the context—whether it is sung in a khol prasanga, a nam prasanga, or simply recited as a prayer by a householder. The vast, varied, and deeply appealing musical arrangement in literary readings enhanced the emotional expression of Bhagavad-bhakti, making it a powerful and immersive experience.

The compassion in the Bargit 'Pave Pari Hari' is expressed with equal intensity in the Namghosha.  It is remarkable that the Namghosha is a theory-based doctrine and prayer book. It does not have a narrative tale. Ordinary people are lovers of narrative tales. Therefore, all the literature of Srimanta Sankaradeva is basically narrative tales. But there is no narrative in the Namghosa. However, it is very popular in Assam. So, the difficult philosophical tatta are become easy to realise through the repeated chanting with this kind of musical performance.

Nirguna Howai jibo tuwa guno gai.

(the creature becomes attributeless by chanting your name and fame)

Another notable feature of the 'Namghosa' is the rhythm of the odd circle. For example, there is no match between syllables and the unit of musical measure between the following lines

        Karmat biswas jaro hiyato thakonta hari

        Atisai duro hunta taro/ Duroto biduro hunta taro.

The last line is extra according to Assamese prosody, as the first line should have 14 syllables but currently has 16.  There are several inconsistencies in the rhythmic arrangement in the final section of the Namghosha, known as Namchanda. Without proper rhyme, the reading experience is affected. However, the musical performance of the Namghosha remains unaffected by these rhythmic irregularities due to its perfomance text.

Through Srimanta Sankaradeva’s linguistic transformation, medieval Assamese became so enriched that it could convey profound philosophical theories, tragic stories, themes of love and desire, picturisation of the beauty of nature and vivid descriptions of unfamiliar figures such as Surpanakha, Aghasura, Baghasura, and Nrisingha, as well as depictions of fire, war, and physical conditions of characters previously unknown to Assamese audiences.

As Srimanta Sankaradeva preached his new religion to uplift the common people, he used the literature, music, acting, and visual art as tools to convey his message. His language was simple and accessible, even when expressing the profound teachings of the Bhagavata, the Gita, and Vedantic monotheistic philosophy.

Despite its simplicity, his language effectively conveyed complex concepts such as Brahma, Maya, the nature of the world, Ekasarana, Nishkam Bhakti, the classical foundation of castelessness, the futility of Brahminism, and the essential attributes of God—nirguna, nirakar, nirvishesha (formless, without attributes, and beyond specificity). His ability to express these intricate philosophical ideas with clarity and conviction is truly remarkable.

In his writings we find the scholar philosopher Srimanta Sankaradeva. Yet he is sensitive towards the happiness and sorrow of the people, their poverty and therefore is not into showing off his scholarship. The intellectualism of the historical great man is evident in his Sanskrit work called Bhakti-Ratnakara, a scholarly work with commentaries and annotations. This was meant for scholars to read and not for ordinary people.

Srimanta Sankaradeva’s Gajendra Upakhyan, Shyamantak Haran, and Balichalan are pure tales of enjoyment, appealing to both young and old alike. As a narrator, Srimanta Sankaradeva is remarkably creative. The narratives he reconstructed from Sanskrit contain all the fundamental elements of a wholesome social life rooted in moral values. Undoubtedly, these stories have played a significant role in shaping the moral and social fabric of Assamese society.  Prahlad, though persecuted, remained steadfast in his faith, trust, and idealism as a devoted follower—yet he remained calm, humble, and patient. Bipra Damodar, despite his poverty, upheld his self-respect. His friendship with Sri Krishna of Dwaraka was never diminished by financial inequality. Throughout these narratives, there is a continuous flow of devotional ideals and philosophical insights, much like how proverbs are woven into the folktales of everyday life.

Nature is physically and humanly integrated into the ranks. There is an elegant expression of physical pleasure in the description. Translating such verses into English is very difficult due to their cultural context and linguistic construction. But it is possible to translate it meaningfully into any regional Indian language.

It is very interesting to observe about the musical awareness in Srimanta Sankaradeva's literature. This musicality of his texts is associated with the association of sound with the sense –the pleasure of listening to best words in best order. The rhythm of a Borgeet, the repetition of a syllable and the pace/tempo of a song has direct link with the content. After hearing a song anyone can understand the content. The sound pattern and musical structure of Srimanta Sankaradeva’s compositions themselves help convey their meaning and context. Similarly, he demonstrates remarkable skill in crafting non-musical literary texts.

In his songs, the words and their musical arrangement form an integral part of the context. Likewise, his non-musical literary works incorporate vivid sound and pictorial descriptions that enhance their depth and expression. Srimanta Sankaradeva built the foundation of his philosophy through rigorous study, and the precision with which he references authoritative texts to support each of his views is unparalleled among his contemporaries. He says,

Amar bole jittaneda thari.

Ekadash kondhe chowa bisari.

Padma puranato namato ashe

Napaile akhyak nindiba pashe.

(You can vilify me if you could not find it in Padma purana)

He criticized the pan Indian casteism by referring to the scriptures:

            Antajayu jiba kori ase geeta

Taka ninda kore jitu kumar.

Punyako lagi jai adhogati.

Amaro bole patiyano nai.

Dekhiyo suto samhitaka chai.

It means, who censure the low caste people for their chanting of Hari-naam, they are go to the hell. If you do not believe me, please see the Suta samhita.

Yet, these narratives are not merely read but also sung. Through songs, these otherwise unlyrical narratives reach common people, making them more accessible—a truly noble venture. Close readers of Srimanta Sankaradeva might be observing his genuine fascination and curiosity about the world, as well as his deep interest for the mystery of human beings. Of course, we must view this within the medieval context. In Bhakti literature, characters attain Baikuntha (heaven) through the power of their devotion to God. Here, Baikuntha represents the ultimate bliss.

But what did happiness mean to people at that time? It could be as simple as having rice when hungry, a remedy for the sick, or a cure for mental distress. Could the contemporary kings, priests, or Tantrics offer solutions to such problems beyond what Srimanta Sankaradeva provided? The same question applies to saints like Guru Nanak and Kabir as well. Srimanta Sankaradeva may not have been able to feed the poor with rice, but he could inspire them to detach from material gains and pleasures. He advocated for a simple life, an ideal of equality, humanistic inclusiveness, and lessons of tolerance—values that transcended the elaborate and costly rituals of the Brahminical tradition.

Through literature and music, he enriched the everyday lives of common people by adding an artistic dimension. It is this cultural and spiritual treasure bestowed by Srimanta Sankaradeva that continues to keep Assamese society rich to this day. For this reason, he is revered as our ‘ultimate Guru’ and is celebrated as the greatest figure Assam has ever produced. He was instrumental in introducing India to the Assamese people. By composing Raga music with uniqueness, he held a significant place in the world of Indian music.

[Lecture delivered in Srimanta Sankaradeva chair at Panjab University, Chandigarh]

by Dr Ananya Barua

Śrimanta Śankaradeva and Hazrat Ājān Pir Fakir breathed new life into the vulnerable religion frontline emulating from the mutual milieu of the chronicled past. Streamlining the practiced observations, added with the inclusion of the local dialect to paraphrase the revered texts, paved the way for bringing in the much-celebrated Bhakti movement in Assam, India. Both these religious reformers constructed new kinds of meaning as the horizon of the text or the tradition, which they sought to creatively re-interpret, creating new literary canons and poetics to legitimize the emergence of new literary genres.

It is significant that the Bhagavata, the main source of inspiration for the medieval Bhakti Saints, could open new possibilities for creative interpretation. Both these diverse religious traditions gave special emphasis on bringing the lower strata, the Sudra (the most innumerable component of India) and stree (women), into the forefront of religio-cultural practice through mass community participation.

Till the British brought in the communal factor in its colonial administrative ethos, Bhakti, and Sufism flourished with benign influence on each other in pre- colonial religious but secular Bharatavarsha.

Mahapurusha Śrimanta Śankaradeva and Bhakti Renaissance in Medieval Assam:

In this conflict-torn historical situation, religion appears to act as a strong ally to the forces of divisiveness and violence rather than a force for unity and peace. In pre-colonial Medieval India, spiritual and cultural renaissance ushered in by the Bhakti movement paved the way for meaningful influence of the Vaishnavism of Śrimanta Śankaradeva on the vernacularised Islam influenced by one of the most revered Islamic preachers in Assam, Ājān Pir. Both Śrimanta Śankaradeva and Ājān Pir sought to restore the human face of religion, drawing inspiration from the historically affected consciousnesses.

Inter-Religious influence in Medieval Assam, India

The relation one has with the text is essential to provide meaning and colors to our understanding. It invites us to come together as people, not as belief systems. If in the medieval ages, we see more religious tolerance than in the colonial and post-colonial society. This is because the distinctive horizons of the political man differ from the wider horizon of a man of faith who is a bhakta at heart, one who knows the secret of true love that alone can transform the impersonal ‘it’ to a passionate ‘Thou’. To do this, the Vaishnavite saint Śrimanta Śankaradeva and a Sufi Saint Ajan Fakir (or Ajan Pir) opted for the Bhaktic interpretation of the text. The spiritual-cultural renaissance ushered in by the Bhakti movement in Medieval India acted as a cementing force that could spiritually bind Assam and its neighboring states to that cultural land of the Bharata. Thus, one can say it is the politicization of religion, which is the real problem rather than religion per se.  

Socio-cultural and Linguistic Implications of the Bhakti Movement:

In the Medieval India the mediators sought to re-interpret the authoritative texts, unveiling the infinite potentiality of the textual content in terms of the historical and cultural horizons. In its effort to safeguard the voices, the Bhakti Movement made a special effort to identify the following:

(a) The right type of text: There was a relationship between authoritative texts like the Gita and the Bhagavata, as these texts could open up new possibilities and could become the source of several religious movements, each different from the other. There are numerous commentaries of these texts and Śrimanta Śankaradeva himself used the commentary Bhagavata Bhabartha Dipika. In this manner, this bhakti-centric concrete dimension of meaning has added a distinct flavor to the notion of textual authority.

The Gurus or the interpreters of the texts were sensitive to the types of devotees for whose sake the text needs specific re-interpretation time and again, taking into account their role in this whole meaning-discovering process. It is equally significant that Nanak, Tukaram, Namdev, and Śrimanta Śankaradeva were all non-Brahmin by birth, which could give new impetus to Bhasa.

Noted historian, H. K. Barpujari points out that “the neo-Vaishnavite movement in Assam was backed by a strong literary upsurge which found expression in the translation of the epics and the Puranas, the adaptation of the Puranic episodes in the form of independent Kavyas, devotional works explaining the types and modes of devotion, lyrics (barges), dramas and biographies of Vaishnava saints”. In its practical sense, the text could now open up to a community of readers with sole emphasis on Sravana and Kirana. The holy books in Sanskrit could now be easily accessible to the Sudras and women in their vernacular language.

(b) The right medium: The story of Śrimanta Śankaradeva or Ajan Pir is also “a story of the development of languages, giving centrality to the language of the people to that of the power elite”. (Murdoch, 1987) Śrimanta Śankaradeva used Brajawali, the colloquial form of the prevailing literary language of Assam, which was similar to North-Indian vernaculars, for his dramas and his Borgeet (devotional songs) to benefit the greater masses.

Brajawali was never an elitist language. It was people’s language. The Assamese language has turned out to be a perfect medium for conveying this catholic spirit of bhakti that could provide a platform for the fusion of horizons. The various tribal dialects and languages of the state, such as Bodo, Karbi, Dimasa, Mishing, Rabha, etc have enriched this language. Arabic and Persian words are another noteworthy addition to the Assamese language. Both Śrimanta Śankaradeva and Ajan Fakir were particularly sensitive to spreading the message of bhakti through the medium of art, language, dance, drama, and music.

Unlike in some other places, pre-colonial Assam has witnessed the peaceful co-existence of different religions, and religious fanaticism was unheard of. The categories ‘Hindu’ and ‘Muslim’ emerged in the context of Medieval India simply because identities were predominantly related to caste (jati), sect (panth), and regional traditions, but these were never identified as separate categories. There was the possibility of caste mobility or panth mobility even within this hierarchy. Ajan Fakir’s is a radial deviation from the model that has dominated the understanding of orthodox Islam, which destroys the image of people as passive beneficiaries of an elite religious order. He became the voice of a dissident sub-alternity committed to telling a ‘different’ story. Muslims have a history of more than seven centuries in Assam as early as 1203 CE. Islam in Assam is open, accommodative, inclusive, and adaptive in its local specificity. It is different from that in North and Western India. The core area of Islamic civilization in India and the social practices of the ‘Asamiya Muslims’ may be inconsistent with the laws of any Islamic schools.

The systematic propagation of Islam as an organized religion started only in the early part of the 17th century by a wandering Muslim mystic Shah Milan (1630 CE). Shah Milan and his brother Shah Nabi found that the Muslims of Assam did not follow any aspect of traditional Islam. They had assimilated into the medieval Assamese society and gained acceptance as one of its inseparable components. Shah Milan received the name “Ajan Fakir” or Ajan Pir (Saint) because he was the one who taught the Assamese Muslims to recite “Azan” as a part of the Muslim ritual. He introduced the Muslims of Assam to the Namaz, the contents of the Quran, the Hadiths, and other Islamic literature with which they were barely acquainted, through a regime of folk songs, instrumental music, and dances.

Śrimanta Śankaradeva was the pioneer in this regard taking courageous steps like opening doors of bhakti to one and all, including the Muslim devotees like Chand Sai. The local Muslims used to take part in the community singing of Kirtana songs for community prayer composed by Śrimanta Śankaradeva to propagate Vaishnavism. The Muslims also took mah-prasad (uncooked eatables generally consisting of gram, sugarcane, coconut, ginger, and fruits) distributed at the end of the Kirtana. These background beliefs formed the common horizon of meaning for both these distinct religious communities. Later, Ajan Pir introduced the custom of distributing sinni (considered food prepared out of rice) at the end of the Kirtana. Ajan Fakir composed one hundred and sixty Zikirs in Assamese.  Zikirs are devotional songs. Ajan Pir and his disciples contributed significantly to educating the majority of local Muslims through unorthodox methods, including ‘un-Islamic’ scriptural standards. Ajan Fakir and his disciples, popularly known as “Bhakat” in Assamese, performed Zikir, dancing and singing with hand clapping, folk performances such as Diha Nam, Husori, etc.

While spreading the religious principles of Islam, Ajan Pir had always been sensitive to the sentiments of Assamese society. Chief objective of him appears to have been the reorganization of Muslim society in Assam by regenerating Islam in such a way that there was no discord in the age-old harmonious relations with their Hindu and other non-Hindu neighbors. A sense of respect for all other castes, creeds, and religions is present in Zikir and Zari songs.

Conclusion

The meaning of the text is obtained through the interaction of the reader and the text itself.  Interestingly, people from two different communities could overcome man-made artificial barriers under the spiritual leadership of Śrimanta Śankaradeva and Ajan Pir at a time when there was space for intimate and interpersonal dialogue across boundaries. Assamese culture and literature witnessed a revolutionary change with the advent of these two great saints – Śrimanta Śankaradeva and Ajan Pir. They both influenced Assamese culture, and society and changed the narrow-minded attitude of the people.  Today, under a changed perspective, when the political man is valued only as a number in the political vote banks, people look for contracts and political accords that, they feel, should address the fears and apprehensions of minorities or majorities.  Thus, the Assamese people find themselves in a political situation in which they are required to propose a definition to mark their identity. The political man and his tug of war between Indian nationalism and Assamese nationalism is a modern manifestation, it usually reflects the agony of a historically effected consciousness that looks for some socio-political solutions to some of his existential problems. Ajan Pir was a symbol of unity, social harmony, and non-violence like Śrimanta Śankaradeva. Empathy, patience, and the greatness of human society were reflected in his writings: “In my mind, Oh Allah! I have no different thoughts. Hindus and Muslims are bound by the same act of divine rules of Allah.” The truth is simple and bold: ‘Hinduk puribo Mominak garibo.’ The act of cremating a Hindu and the entombing of a Muslim only signifies one end - death for all.

by Dr Sangita Bora

The philosophy of Srimanta Sankaradeva was pro–human. He developed such sense of religious order which is very simple and cushy. His religious order is known as “Nama Dharma”. His religion is the combination of humanity and spirituality.  He projected humanity in every phase of his life. Equality, fraternity, impartiality, positivity, kindness, are some of the basic pillars of his humanistic approach. He built such a structure of society where he made all kinds of arrangement for assimilation of people irrespective of their caste, creed and religion. He tried to eradicate social evils like caste system by assembling people together through Bhakti cult.

Srimanta Sankaradeva built such a structure of society which embraced those so called low- caste people who were neglected by high caste people. The instance of Sati Radhika and his husband Purnananda was one of the remarkable examples to illustrate his concern about low class people as well as women. He entrusted the responsibility to Sati Radhika to construct the dam over Tembuwani revine to prevent flood. While attempts of men failed, Sati Radhika made it possible and paved the path for women liberation.

Sanjib Kr Borkakoti wrote, “Srimanta Sankaradeva was not only propagating a religion, but developing a cultured and ethical nation.” (Borkakoti 2023: 133) He was a versatile human being, who laid down the foundation for modern Assam. He was the man who paved the path to remove the great burden of the society – that was the ‘exploitation of man by man’. He took the responsibility to eradicate all kinds of evils from the Assamese society through a revolutionary consciousness. He liberated people from economic exploitation.

Srimanta Sankaradeva developed a constructive spirit among the humans for both collective as well as individual wellbeing. Creative humanism got considerable place in the philosophy of Srimanta Sankaradeva with aiming at serving the humanity with an inclusive approach. Creative humanism emphasizes on promoting love among the people without any discrimination on the basis of caste, class, creed or religion. Srimanta Sankaradeva used his creative works to promote this sense of love, brotherhood secularism, and equality in the society

Srimanta Sankaradeva dreamed a society full of love and devotion. He established harmony and unity among the people of different communities.

                        Nahi bhakatitat jati- ajati vichara,

                        Krishnatu bhakti samsatare adhi karma

(there is no distinction of caste and everybody has equal rights to chant the Hari Nama)

One of the key elements of Srimanta Sankaradeva’s humanism was non-violence.  He wanted to establish peace and harmony in the society on the basis of human values. He established a society with a sense of non-exploitation. It was a multi-ethnic society. He propagated his religion through painting, sculpture, art and music. He accentuated on purity of the human mind. Love for others (human, animal) is the greatest asset of human heart. All animals should be treated equally. The discrimination on the basis of lower and upper caste/class should be prohibited. People should move beyond arrogance.

The Vaishnavite movement of Srimanta Sankaradeva was a reformative movement aimed at reforming the existing social order and improving the condition of human with the use of creativity. The religion propagated by him was Eka Sarana Nama Dharma –the religion of supreme surrender to one (God Vishnu); it emphasized on equality. All the people of the society should be treated equally, because all are the creation of the one God (Vishnu). Nothing exists without him. Everything is created and sustained by God Vishnu. Through his religion Srimanta Sankaradeva promoted peace amidst social turmoil, developed love in place of hatred, encouraged faith in place of fear.

Srimanta Sankaradeva wrote:

Jata jiva   jangama                             kita patangama

Aganaga jaga teri kanya (Bargeet)

Srimanta Sankaradeva strived for unity among all the sections of society. His religion stressed on equality for all living beings, not only human. He treated all living beings with same dignity. For him, every living beings are the same; be it men or women, high caste or low caste, dog or jackal, as they possess the same soul of the supreme being.

“Xakala pranika dekhibeka atmasam

Kukura srigala gardabharo atma rama

Janiya savako pari kariba pranama”

(Kirtan ghosa /1825)

Krishna parama deva                   krishnaka kariyu seva

Krishnata sarvada dia mati

Ase hiridipatha maje        ishara krshnata baje

Ano kuna deve dibo gati (Bhagavata 6/5337)

 He raised the voice against animal killing. He wrote…

Dasa maha makhi juka puka paruwara

Ishare nirmila britti rudhire amara

Piyante gawara teja taka jiyu mare

Pare xitu nara andhakupa andakare (Bhagawata)

According to Srimanta Sankaradeva, we should not harm others, not even the smallest of the creatures.  He was such an ardent supporter of non-violence that he advised people not to kill mosquitos. He believed everyone had the right to life. He adjudicated everything based on democratic principles and spirit for toleration.  He expanded liberal and creative humanistic approach for the first time in Assam.  In his view it is unnecessary to hurt people and animal. Killing of any living being is considered as sin.

He opposed all kind of sacrifices offered to God. He wrote…

Nrisimha bolanta hasi sunio prahlada

Dibaka nalage to isava prasada

Parama vaisnava tai putra bhaili yara

Ekais purusa tara karili uddara

Yaita thake mora bhakta udhara caraitra

Kita –patangako tatha kariya pabitra

Nakarare praanika hinsa nahi eko sparha

Amata arpana karae apunara deha (Kritan Ghosa)

It means strong dedication to God by a devotee who even dedicates his body to God and never harbours any envious feelings towards any living thing.

Srimanta Sankaradeva established religious institutions for bringing unity among people and to abolish the practice of untouchability. Namghar or Kirtanghar (an epitome of simplicity) is Srimanta Sankaradeva’s single most outstanding legacy for the Assamese people (Phukan 2017:43).Namghar brings about a degree of bonding within the community through people praying together and participating in its various activities. In many respect Namghar assumes the role of a village parliament. It provides the platform for grass-root democracy. Along withNaamghar, theXatras helped significantly in spreading education with the help of culture. These institutions taught people the true essence of life and some survival skills. Institutions like these provided a platform for people of all sections to come together and cooperate with each other breaking all the barriers constructed by society.  These institutions hold together Assamese community life (Phukan 2017:44).

Srimanta Sankaradeva brought about a cultural revolution in Assam. He used literature, art, culture, scientific religion to bring about the change. All people irrespective of their caste, creed religion became the part of the revolution. His religion became the religion of common people. There was no room for superstition, discrimination, differentiation, intolerance and injustice. His religion was the illumination of the human consciousness through universal love and spirit. He developed new kind of ideology and philosophy in the form of Bargeet (Great song), Ankiya Naat (Play), Satriya Dance to foster the knowledge of devotion (to one God ‘Vishnu’) and it was based on the spirit of equality, and humanism.

by Rupam Kumar Boro

Hagiography is a treasure-trove of moral values and a correct path of leading one’s life, among others, as shown by the saints themselves. Saints occupy a prominent place of worship and is treated as an incarnation of God. When the lives of the saints are penned down in the form of the above genre, the devotees as well as the admirers tune in with the words inscribed on it.

The chief aspect in a hagiography is the element of unquestioning factor. Astounding events and miracles form one of the constituents of this genre. Hagiographers are often direct devotee or disciple. This world of spirituality is an access to enlightening journey for someone while someone may be a doubting Thomas.... more

by Krishnasarana Bhakat (Edgar Faingor)

I am originally from Moscow, Russia, born in a non-religious family. From my early teenage years I was interested in spirituality, as I had pressing questions regarding the nature of our being, and the meaning of life. As Russia is historically and predominantly a Christian country, naturally at first I was exploring Christianity, and joined a course in a Catholic Church. Later on, I felt the need to study other spiritual paths, and therefore engaged in long-term studies of Hinduism and then Buddhism. While still in Moscow, I became interested in the teachings of Gaudiya Vaishnavism and  Vedanta, and visited the Hare Krishna temple as well as Ramakrishna Mission centre.... more

                                    प्रो. वीरेन्द्र कुमार अलंकारः, संस्कृत विभाग, पंजाब विश्वविद्यालय, चण्डीगढ

नाट्यकृद् भक्तिविल्लोकसंस्कारकृत्

गीतसंगीतकाव्येष्वधीती  सुधीः।

धर्मविद्   भेदभिन्नृत्यकृद्   गायकः

देवदेवो हृदा स्तूयते शङ्करः।।१।।

लेभे  यो  वै  जनुः  श्रीप्रसिद्धेऽसमे

घोरकालेऽपि यो भास्वरो भायुतः।

मेने  ह्येकं  हि  धर्मं  सदा  जीवने  ... more

SPIRITUAL HUMANIST SRIMANTA SANKARADEVA

by Dr Sanjib Kumar Borkakoti

Dear friends from North America, I am highly priviledged to address you today on the life and works of Srimanta Sankaradeva, especially how he was a spiritual humanist. I am grateful to Naamghar Association of America for this great opportunity. The members of this Association deserve accolades for their sincerity in preserving and spreading the legacy of Srimanta Sankaradeva in foreign shore. Discussion about the saint is very scanty. Naamghar Association of America has done a commendable job by organising this dialogue. ... more

by Dr Sanjib Kumar Borkakoti

The Thân or Sattrainstitution is a living heritage bequeathed to the posterity by Srimanta Sankaradeva (1449 AD - 1568 AD). Unlike most heritages, which are long dead, the Thân or Sattrainstitution continues to be a vibrant one. Earlier, it was known only as Thân. Later on the name Sattra also came to be used. The religious order Eka Sarana Nâma Dharma of Srimanta Sankaradeva sustained itself for more than five centuries on the strength of the Thân or Sattra. ... more